THE ALCHEMY

Alchemy is an ancient pseudoscience concerned with the transmutation of base metals into gold and with the discovery of both a single cure for all diseases and a way to prolong life indefinitely. Alchemy emerged as a pseudoscience in China an in Egypt during the early centuries of this era. In China it was associated with Taoist philosophy and purported to transmute base metals into gold by use of a “medicine”. The gold so produced was thought to have the ability to cure diseases and to prolong life. The mystical element was always strong in alchemy and became dominant with time so that in China degenerated into a complex of superstitions.

In Egypt, the methods of transmutation of metals were kept secret by temple priests. Those recipes became widely known at academy in Alexandria. Alchemy had its basis in the skills of Egyptian artisan, Eastern mysticism and Aristotelian theory of composition of matter. Aristotle taught that all matter was composed of four elements: water, earth, fire and air. According to this theory, different materials found in nature had different ratios of these four elements. Therefore, by proper treatment a base metal could be changed into gold. These ideas were further supported by astrological speculation from Mesopotamia.

HOW ANIMALS ESCAPE FROM DANGER ?

As a living thing an animal tries to live on and multiply itself. Besides it also has an instinct to defend itself from dangers. Weak animals have their own ways to free themselves from their enemies. To chase its enemy a house mouse sprays a very bad smell. A cuttlefish sends out black liquid when it is attacked. A small lizard cuts its tail to free itself from an attack. Its tail will grow again in a short time. A crab, ten leg shellfish, has a pair of pincers to protect itself. Another animal that has a pair of pincers is a lobster. Lobsters an crabs are called crustaceans. Their pincers are use to grip things.

A hedge-hog rolls itself up into a ball to defend itself. The spines that covered its skin are also dangerous weapons. To protect themselves all poisonous snakes spray their poison. Large snakes will wrap their enemies with their bodies. Sometimes a snake bites its enemy to protect itself from a danger. A snail hides itself in its shell when a danger comes. An eel's skin is very slippery because it is covered with mucus. The mucus is used to defend from seizure. A chameleon changes colour according to the place where it exists. In a tree it changes color to green, so that it can't be seen easily. A tree-frog uses its urine to expel the enemies.

THE HOSPITAL

A hospital is a place that provides care for the sick and injured, It offers a wide variety of medical services for its patients. The hospital also serves as a centre for health related research within the community.

The discovery of anesthetics made modern surgery possible. The realization of the necessity for antiseptic halted the spread of disease and infection within hospital walls.

By the end of 19^th century the hospital had assumed its modern structure and was beginning to the central axis around which all other health-care systems were organized.

Hospitals are classified by the kinds of services they offer. General hospitals are equipped to treat a variety of common diseases and injuries. Special hospitals are established to treat specific maladies or specific groups of patients. Hospital are also classified according to the entity controlling them: a church, a corporation or a medical school.

Advances in each aspect of health care have led to the creation of professional specialities. The specialities have become more important to the efficient care for the sick.

Nutrition, for example was recognized as a contributing factor in the cause and cure of illness. Hospital dietitians now plan meals based on their knowledge of the special dietary requirements for patient suffering every type of illness.

As alcoholism has come to be perceived as a sickness, special units have been added to hospital services. The units treat both the physical and psychological aspects of the disease. The treatment of drug addiction is also a hospital function.

Improved medical techniques have enabled physicians to save the lives of an increasing number of accident victims by special surgical procedures.

THE SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is a term that encompasses a broad range of energy forms. The sun's energy profoundly affects the world's wind patterns, causes ocean water to evaporate as part of the hydraulic cycle and is essential for plant growth. The winds may be used to turn windmills, the hydraulic cycle makes hydroelectric power possible. Vegetation, which grows in the presence of sunlight, may be burned directly for instance, as wood in a stove or fireplace. Solar energy also makes it possible to harness ocean thermal energy, which uses the temperature difference between sun-warmed surface water and cold water from the ocean depths to produce power.

Although all these indirect means of using energy from the sun are considered solar technologies, the solar energy most commonly refers to direct use of the sun's energy: by means of photovoltaic sollar cells, which convert sunlight into electricity. It includes the use of various devices to convert solar radiation to heat the may be used for heating and cooling buildings, providing hot water for homes, business, industry and generating electricity by thermal means.

Besides the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity by means of photovoltaic cells, sunlight may be used to generate steam, which can then be used to power a turbine for producing electricity. One solar-thermal design, called a power tower, consists of a field of movable mirrors that surround a tower, at the top of which is a boiler. The mirrors, called heliostats, track the sun so as to constantly focus its light on the boiler. At the bottom of the tower is a building that houses a turbine generator. Some scientists heve suggested building huge photovoltaic arrays in earth orbit for producing large amounts of power. Such arrays, called solar space power satellites, would beam collected energy to earth by way of microwaves.

THE UNITED NATIONS

The United Nations is a general international organization. It was established at the end of World War II to promote international peace and security. It officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, when 51 original members ratified its charter.

One of the main purposes of the organization is to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war. Developing friendly relation among states was another goal of the organization. The other important goal is to promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

The United Nations is equipped with six major organs. They are the Security Council, General Assembly, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice and the Secretariat.

The Security Council is responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security. It has 15 members. Five of them are permanent members. The other ten members are elected by the General Assembly for 2-year terms.

The General Assembly is composed of all members stated. It is the main deliberate organ of the United Nations. It has the right to discuss and make recommendations on all matters within the scope of the charter. The International Court of Justice receives cases from states and international organization. The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day work of the organization. The work of the secretary-general and staff is varied. Providing mediation in resolving international dispute is one of their duties. Administering peace keeping operations is also the secretary-general's duty.

In January 1982, Javier Perez De Cuellar of Peru began a five-year term, ending in December 1986.

THE HUMAN DIGESTION

Digestion is the process in which nutrients such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates are taken in by an organism and broken down to a form that may be readily absorbed from the gut for circulation to and used by various cells. The host is provided with nutrient required for metabolism. Nutrient supply the molecules from which energy, as calories, may be derived for cellular synthesis, cell and organ growth, and tissue replacement. In addition, nutrient provide the components that are needed in these processes but which the host is unable to synthesize, such as vitamins, minerals and certain essential amino acids.

Food enters the digestive tract by way of the mouth, where it undergoes physical change through chewing. Enzymes, such as ptyalin, that initiate sugar digestion are introduced in salivary secretions, which also provide lubrication to facilitate chewing and swallowing.

The food bolus (soft mass) passes through the esophagus and is retained in the stomach. There food is liquefied by a mixture of hydrochloric acid and pepsin, which is secreted by the stomach wall.

A common duct from the pancreas and the gall bladder into the duodenum serves as a conduit to introduce bicarbonate (to neutralize hydrochloric acid), pancreatic enzymes (for degradation of proteins and carbohydrates) and bile salts (for fat absorption).

Peristalsis moves the chyme into the next portion of small intestine, where the bulk of digested carbohydrate, protein, water, water-soluble vitamins and minerals are absorbed. Remaining nutrients are propelled to the last third of the small intestine, the ileum.

Here fat, fat-soluble vitamins and bile salts are absorbed.

FAMILY PLANNING AND BIRTH CONTROL

A father can establish a prosperous family easier if the family is not too large. The government always suggests that each family should not have more than two children. A small family simplifies the education process because each child gets a special attention from their parents.

The discussion about the forming of a small family will face the technical situation. The technical situation is not less important than the conceptional idea. The conceptional idea will only be an imagination without the technical support in the daily life.

Technically the government has given a very great attention to family planning and birth control. Several contraceptions are introduced. A safari of the family planning has been done simultaneously in the whole country.

The most effective method to control and plan the birth is by applying IUD in a woman's womb.

The doctor will surely suggest a certain device or method which is more suitable for each wife.

Most people agree to the government policy that every family should to have two children incessantly and then stop. But the other prefer having two children with three or five years distant in between, as long as the wife is still under thirty.

Kartini

Raden Ajeng Kartini was born in Mayong, Central Java on April 21, 1879 from a noble family. Her father was the regent of Jepara whose name was Raden Mas Adipati Ario Samingun Sosroningrat. He was an educated man and sent all his sons and daughter to a Dutch elementary School (Europeesche Lagere School) in Jepara. In this town she had a lot of friends, Indonesia and Dutch girls. She was also beginning to know and understand western culture.

At school Kartini began to think of what many girl of her age missed.They could not go to school, and had to stay at home until they married. Kartini realized that women in indonesia were not free, and she wanted to improve this situasion.

Kartini symbolizes the advance of women in Indonesia. According to her opinion education would add women's dignity. She tried hard to get liberty from the ancient custom. When she was still a girl, not many girls went to school. The schoolgirls were limited to elementary school.

Going to a higher school contradicted the tradition. The heroine was longing for stopping the humiliated custom. She wished to continue her study after she finished the elementary school. She persuaded her father who was a nobleman. She told him openly about her race. Men had ruled women for centuries. Women had to obey what men said. Sometimes they had to do what they really didn't want to do. Women never had any important right. They only had to bear babies, nothing else. On the contrary man laid on his desire even it hurt woman's heart. It was a pity, woman was not brave enough to refuse.

Why could it happen? Because her race wasn't clever. They never had any education. It was her idea to give knowledge and skill to women. She proposed what was in her mind to her father. Her father denied what she wanted. It was a contradiction with the habit.

He asked her daughter not to leave home until someone asked her to be his wife. As an obedient girl, she accepted the decision. She had to do what her father wanted. She becane Adipati Joyodiningrat's wife and moved to Rembang following her husband.

PLASTIC ARTICLES

A plastic material is one which can be moulded into the shape we want. The first plastic materials were ones that are to be found in nature, such as wax, resin and clay. We know that clay can be fashioned into cups and saucers.

Today are chemists have found out to make new materials which can be pressed into whatever shapes are wanted and then made hard so that they can be used by us.

There are several kinds of stuffs, but they all fall into one or other of two groups. Those in one group are put while cold into a metal mould of the right shape. They are pressed into shape and then made hard by heat. Once they harden they keep their shape. The other group is made soft by heat. Then it is squirted as a thick liquid into a metal mould of the right shape. The plastic become firm in their new shape as they cool.

Let us take a simple article as a plastic tumbler, which is shaped like a glass. For this they use the method known as compression mould. A metal mould of the shape of the outside of the tumbler is made and into this some plastic material is put. It is in the form of a powder. Then another metal mould, having the shape of the inside of the tumbler, comes down and pressed into this powder. The powder spreads out and fills the space between the inner and outer mould. The mould get very hot and the powder joins together to form a firm tumbler.

When the top mould is lifted up, the tumbler can be taken out. It will always keeps the same shape.

Another method, called injection moulding is used to make plastic toys. A metal mould has in it a hollow space in the shape of a toy. The plastic material is heated and it turns to a thick liquid. This liquid is squirted into the hollow space shaped like a toy. It fills up this space, and when the liquid cools and becomes hard it is now in the form of a toy.

PEOPLE AND SUBSISTENCE

The vast population increase of the 21^th century have been accompanied by advances in agriculture. Domestic animals supply about 8 million metric tons of wheat. Rather smaller quantity of rice provides the main food of human population. Lesser elements are an annual 82 million metric tons of sugar. About 6 million metric tons of fish are caught in the ocean month.

Population tend to grow rapidly to the highest level at which the available technology can provide sustenance, and then remain constant. As technology becomes more sophisticated, population increase. Thomas Malthus, the British economist and pioneer in the modern study of population, failed to predict technological change and consequently underestimated future growth in both populations and their incomes.

Much contemporary discussion of population is framed in terms of demographic model in which deaths decline from a level of about 30 per 1000each year to about 10 per 1000. After a longer or a shorter lag the decline in deaths is followed by a decline births from about 45 per 1000 or higher to about 20 per 1000 or lower. No one knows whether the fall in the death rate directly causes the fall in the birthrate that follows it. The time lag separating the fall in births from the fall in deaths is of crucial importance. With a delay of 45 years it can multiply fourfold. With a delay of 75 years it can multiply ninefold. What is certain is that if no fall in birthrate occurs, the death rate will have to rise in those countries which are technologically backward. Only a certain number of people will be able to support themselves within a given territory through subsistence agriculture.

VOLCANO

A volcano is a vent in the earth from which molten rock and gas erupt. The molten rock that erupts from the volcano forms a hill or mountain around the vent. The lava may flow out as a viscous liquid, or it may be exploded from the vent as solid or liquid particles.

The most fluid magmas are erupted quietly. They flow from the vent to form gently sloping shield volcanoes. The lava flows from the shield volcanoes are usually only 1 to 10 meter thick. They may extend for great distances away from the vent.

Magmas with high gas contents and high viscousities are usually more explosive. These gas-rich magmas are blown high into the air during an eruption. The magma falls as volcanic bombs, which accumulate around the vent. They form steep-sided cinder cones.

Most of the tallest volcanoes are stratovolcanoes. These form from a cycle of quiet eruptions of fluid lava followed by explosive eruptions of viscous lava.

A volcano may exhibit different styles of eruptions at different times. Eruptions may change from one type to another as the eruption progresses. The least violent type of eruption is termed Hawaiian. It is characterized by extensive fluid lava flows from central vents. Occasionally it is accompanied by lava fountains. Strombolian eruptions are characterized by moderately fluid lava flows. Vulcanian eruptions are marked by viscous magmas.

Volcanic activity has yielded a variety of economic resources. Volcanoes supply both lightweight and heavy aggregate, as well as pumice for abrasives and elements such as sulfur, copper and many other. Recently volcanic areas have become important sources of geothermal energy.

WAGE RUDOLF SUPRATMAN

A magazine asked all Indonesian musicians to prepare the National Anthem. Supratman thought that he had to compose an anthem. In 1924, he composed Indonesia Raya.

He was born at Jatinegara, Jakarta, on March 19, 1903. After he finished his elementary school in Jakarta, he continued his study in Ujung Pandang and graduated there.

He taught at elementary school for some years, before he worked at a business firm. His heart pressed him to move to Bandung. He become a journalist in Bandung and moved to Jakarta. He was still a journalist when he went to Jakarta. He often wrote about the national movements. The condition at the time touched him. The ill treatment to the people urged him to write a book. The title of this book was Perawan Desa. Perawan Desa criticized the colonialist so the Dutch forbade its circulation. The Indonesia Raya that was only sung by the boy-scout, finally sung widely in the Youth Congress in Jakarta. The Congress was held on October 28, 1928.

With a violin in his hand, Supratman played the song beautifully in front of the Congress participators. They were all very satisfied and clapped hand happily. Since that time on the Indonesia Raya was always sung at every meeting, even though the Dutch prevented. Besides producing the Youth Oath, the congress declared the Indonesia Raya created by Supratman. After the proclamation of the independence, Indonesia Raya was confirmed as the National Anthem. Supratman died in Surabaya on August 17, 1938 when he was only 35 years old.

PETROLEUM

Petroleum – the oil and gas in the earth crust – is the immense importance to humans. Petroleum occurs widely in the sedimentary rocks of the earth's crust. It may as gas, liquid, semisolid or solid, although mixtures of gas and liquids are most common.

Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydro carbon compounds with minor amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur as impurities. Forms of petroleum include crude oil. Natural gas consisting of the compound methane, butane and propane. Asphalt is obtained as a residue from certain petroleum. Commercially, crude oil is the most important form of petroleum and natural gas is second.

Petroleum is enormously important from an economic, technological and social standpoint. Fuels that derived from petroleum supply more than half of the world's total supply of energy. Gasoline, kerosene and diesel oil provide fuel for automobiles, tractors, trucks, aircraft and ships. Fuel oil and natural gas are used to heat homes and commercial buildings.

Petroleum products are used in the manufacture of synthetic fibers for clothing and in plastics, paints, fertilizers, insecticides, soaps and synthetic rubber. The uses of petroleum as a source of raw material in manufacturing have progressively increased in importance.

FROM ALCHEMY TO SCIENCE

In the time of Aristotle, greeks spread into Egypt and Mesopotamia. And so, in the centuries that followed, the knowledge of those regions met and mixed with Greeks theories.

For instance, Egyptian metalworkers knew how to make imitation gold by mixing copper with other metals. The mixture wasn't gold, of course, but it had the color of gold. However, a Greeks theory said that gold and copper were really made of the same matter. They differed only in the “form”. So it followed that one could make gold from copper or even from lead.

Naturally, metalworkers began to try to make real gold. This was probably the beginning of a study called chemia. Exactly where this word comes from no one knows, but it is the root of our word “chemistry”.

For many centuries the students of chemia tried to make gold out of other metals. But since this was impossible by the methods they used, they always failed.

As time passed, the Arabs became great conquerors. They won control of Mesopotamia and Egypt and much more. And they took up the study of chemia, which they called al chemia (al is Arabic for “the”). This expression has come down to us as “alchemy”.

The most important Arabian alchemist was Jabir ibn Hayyan. He lived about A.D. 750 and is also known by the Latin form of his name, Geber. He seems to have made a number of discoveries about ways to prepare chemical. And it it was he who started the search for certain dry powder that came to be called the philosopher's stone. Alchemists believed that it would turn other metals into gold. And they searched for it during hundreds of years.

Arabian alchemists did discover some important new chemical substance. Among these were ammonium chloride and certain strong alkalies. Most of their time, however, was spent searching for the philosopher stone. And after the year 1000, Arabian alchemy came to an end.

However, by the 1100's Arabian books were reaching Europe. Books an alchemy (and many more) were translated into Latin. Europeans the began to search for the philosopher's stone.

Fortunatelly by the 1500's a new spirit was on the sea. There was a swiss doctor who called himself Paracelsus. He was an alchemist but not an ordinary one. He didn't think it was at all important to find methods for making gold. He thought alchemists should search for medicine to cure sickness. He was not a great scientist and some of his idea were entirely wrong. But he wanted to put an end to ancient belief's and start over. There he was right. He was also right in waiting to test ideas by experiments.

Beginning in the 1580's an Italian scientist named Galileo showed that it was very important to make accurate measurements. More could be learned in this way than in any other. He work in physics and astronomy helped to establish modern science.

Lavoisier, a French chemist, explained that a candle didn't really disappear if it burned. The carbon and hydrogen in it combined with the oxygen of the air. They formed carbon dioxide gas and water vapour. If the candle burned in a closed vessel, the weight of the candle and vessel did not change.

Chemists tried to arrange the elements in the order of their atomic weights. The most successful arranger was a Russian chemist, Dmitri I. Mendeleev. In 1869 he arranged the elements in rows and columns. He published the first periodic table, which become the basis of theoritical chemistry. The periodic table provides an easy way to show the division of the elements into two acid and base.

As chemistry had been developing so had the science of physics. Physics deals with various forms of energy, such as heat, light, electricity and magnetism. From about 1850 on, chemists began to apply the findings physics to chemistry. In this way physical chemistry was developed.

Driving a car can be a pleasure

Driving a car can be a pleasure, but sometimes it is dangerous for other. The government forms many traffic regulations to prevent accidents. One of the regulations is a necessity to have a driving license according to the vehicle one takes. Drivers have to recognize and obey all of the traffic signs on the road.

In our country one has to drive at the left side. In some other countries, one has to drive at the right side.

Bad drivers often commit traffic delict that threaten others. Besides they are threats against the traffic regularity. In the rash hours, traffic delays very often occur. Good drivers can play an important role and help the traffic policeman in overcoming the delays. Not to pass the heavy roads is a way to lessen the traffic delays.

A driver must be sure that his vehicle is safe. He has to convince himself that he won't have any engine-trouble on the road. What should one do before he takes his car? There are many things to do. He must be sure the water in the radiator is full. The engine won't last long if it lacks of water. The engine will overheat quickly. Changing oil regularly after a certain distance is a good way to prevent a car disturbance. Look closely if the brakes work well. Repair or adjust them if you think they work badly. Good brakes will protect our lives and others.

Don't forget to take the spare tire. Look over all the lamps. Driving without good lamps in the night is very dangerous. When your car does not start, look at the battery. Charge it if necessary. Your car must be equipped with safety triangulars, a jack, a medicine box and other important equipments.

If the car is okay, driving is a fun.

WILDLIFE REFUGE IN THE UNITED STATES

The reason for establishing a wildlife refuge is to provide protection for animals that have become reduced in number. The other motive is to improve the habitat so that animals will breed and grow in number.

Traditionally, a wildlife refuge has been a marked area of land or water on which hunting, trapping, trespassing and fishing are forbidden or restricted. Most wildlife refuges are established under governmental programs. But some are established by private individuals and organizations. The first federal refuges was established in Florida by executive order of President Theodore Roosevelt. This refuge, intended to protect brown pelicans. A large number of federal refuges have managers trained in wildlife ecology or forestry.

Migratory bird refuges account for three-fourths of all refuges established. Concern for the waterfowl population has resulted in breeding and wintering refuges. The national wildlife refuge in North Dakota is a good example of preservation of a waterfowl breeding habitat. The Illinois River bottom was established as a flyway refuge where waterfowl could find food and protection while migrating to traditional wintering grounds.

Refuges also exist for endangered species such as the whooping crane, which find protection at its winter home in the Arkansas Refuge of Texas. The key deer in Florida benefits from the the Key Deer Refuge there and the desert bighorn sheep finds protection in refuge of southern Nevada.

National refuges exist in Africa, protecting such game as elephants and lions and also lesser-known, rare species of animals. Such refuges also have been established in India, Indonesia and numerous other regions worldwide.

LAKE TOBA

The lake Toba which is located in North Sumatra is the largest lake in Indonesia. The beauty of the lake interests thousand of foreign and domestic tourists. Every year thousand of tourists come to Toba to enjoy its beauty. Prapat is a beautiful town by the lake. The town is not very clean, but it is not dirty either.

From this town, tourists can cross the lake to Samosir. It is an island in the middle of the gigantic lake. Crossing the lake to Samosir is an interesting experience.

If the day is clear, the green island is really beautiful. At Tuktuk, a small town in Samosir, tourists can spend the night in villas belongs to the big restaurant there. The villas only charge Rp. 500.000,- for a doubled room. People who do not have much money can rent cheaper villas. There are some which charge lower. Some people also rent their houses for tourists. Tourists only have to pay Rp. 50.000,- a night. The houses have no electricity but they are clean and comfortable.

Every day a ferry sails around Samosir. Because it is a large island, the journey takes the whole day. Tourists who do not like sailing can go around the island by land. On certain days cars carry people to go around the island. One can hire a motor-cycle, too. The rent is about Rp. 800.000,- a day. The rent is not fixed, depending on how clever one bargains. Riding a motor-cycle is very pleasant in this district. The road is good and not busy. The people are very kind and are always ready to help others. The beautiful nature and the kindness of the people are really different from the region across the island.

Ambarita is another small town in Samosir. About five kilometres from the small town, people can see the ruin of ancient small kingdoms. Samosir is a unique island. The island that is located in the middle of lake Toba also has a small lake in its centre. It also has two hot springs that interest tourists.

THE AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is the accumulation in the atmosphere of substances that, in sufficient concentrations, endanger human health or produce other measured effects on living matter and other materials.

Among the major sources of pollution are power and heat generation, the burning of solid wastes, industrial processes and especially transportation. The six major types of pollutants are carbon monoxide, hydro carbons, nitrogen oxides, particulates, sulfur dioxide and photochemical oxidants.

Smog has seriously affected more persons than any other type of air pollution. It can be loosely defined as a multisource, widespread air pollution that occurs in the air of cities.

As a coal economy has gradually been replaced by a petroleum economy, photochemical smog has become predominant in many cities. Its unpleasant properties result from the irradiation by sunlight of hydrocarbons and other pollutants in the air. Irradiation produces a long series of photochemical reactions. The product of the reactions include organic particles, ozone, aldehydes and organic acids. Sulfur dioxide, which is always present to some extent, oxidizes and hydrates to form sulfuric acid and becomes part of the particulate matter. Automobiles are polluters even in the absence of photochemical reactions. They are responsible for much of the particulate material in the air. They also emit carbon monoxide, one of the most toxic constituents of smog.

All types of smog decrease visibility and with the possible exception of ice fog are irritating to the respiratory system.

Statistical studies indicate that smog is a contributor to malignancies of many types. Photochemical smog produces eye irritation and lacrimation and causes severe damage to many types of vegetation, including important crops. Acute effects include an increased mortality rate, especially among person suffering from respiratory and coronary ailment.

ROBERT WOLTER MONGINSIDI

Robert Wolter Monginsidi was born in Manado in 1925. He was still in MULO when the Pacific War broke. During the Japanese occupation, he entered the Japanese school.

He joined the independence combatants in Ujung Pandang when the Indonesia independence was proclaimed.

When the Dutch landed at Ujung Pandang and other towns in Southern Sulawesi, the armed conflict with the young combatants happened.

The combatants finally founded irregular troops and appointed Wolter as the secretary general. Besides he also accomplished a task as a tactician in the military operations. He often covered up as a Dutch military police and entered the town to spy upon the enemy.

The colonialist suffered much loss in facing the irregular troops. He concentrated his troops at Polombangkeng.

Overcoming the combatants activities, the aggressor performed robust operations. Wolter was trapped and caught, Ten months later he escaped from the prison. The Dutch was panic and accomplished other accurate operations. In nine days the Dutch recaught him.

The colonialist tried to persuade him to work together but he refused distinctly. Finally the Dutch sentenced him to death. He rejected to ask amnesty from the colonialist.

On September 5, 1949, Wolter was shot at Pacinang. With a bible in his left hand and his right hand clenched, he shouted “Merdeka!”. He died as a young hero.

GENERATOR

A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by rotating an armature, which contains conductors, through a magnetic field. A voltage is induced in the moving conductors by an effect called electromagnetic induction. In order for voltage to be generated, relative motion must exist between the conductors and the magnetic field. An engine, motor, turbine or other source of mechanical energy is used to turn the armature shaft. Generators are built in many sizes. Most electricity used today in cars, in homes and by industry in producing things by generators.

The two main types of generators are direct-current (DC) generators and alternating-current (AC) generators. The DC generators rotates the conductors in a stationary magnetic field. The AC generators (alternator) rotates a magnetic field that is cut by the stationary conductors. Current induced in the conductors of all generators is an alternating-current. The current taken from the generator for the electrical load circuit, however, may be either AC or DC, depending on how the generator is constructed.

The strength of voltage induced in the conductor depends on its speed and on the strength of the magnetic field. The magnetic field may be furnished by a permanent magnet or by current flowing through field coils to form an electromagnet.

The principal components of a DC generator are the armature, commutator, field poles, brushes and brush rigging, yoke or frame, an bells or and frames. In an alternator, the armature coils are held in place in slots in the alternator frame. The field coils are wound on poles or slots around the rotating shaft. The assembly that contains the stationary conductors is called stator. The assembly that includes the rotating poles and field coils is called rotor.

ECOLOGY

Darwin's theory of evolution was essentially ecological. He postulated that organisms which will survive to reproduce are those that are best adapted to their environment. Ecologists are concerned with how organisms adapt to their environment in order to survive. The ecological functions of an organism are said to constitute its niche. For example, an insect may be a predator, but it may not prey on organisms much larger or much smaller than itself. Also, diurnal predators normally do not capture organisms that are nocturnal or that live in habitats unsuited to the predator.

Many ecologists are proponents of a principle called competitive exclusion, which states that each niche can be occupied by only one species, because when a required resource is limited and two or more species compete for it, one of the species will be eliminated unless it can evolve to occupy a slightly different niche.

One of the major trends in ecology is the increased use of mathematical modeling, which often requires the use of computers. Mathematical formulas are used to stimulate population fluctuations, mineral cycling and energy flow. Models can be used to discover where our knowledge is inadequate, to aid in making generalizations and formulating ecological principles and to help predict the fate of ecosystems under given sets of circumstances.

The growing field of systems ecology uses theoretical analysis and experimental methods to study the disruption of ecosystems and the dynamics of their reconstruction. System ecology requires people trained in a wide variety of disciplines: mathematics, computer technology, physiology, microbiology, biochemistry, climatology and taxonomy.

Ecologists are more and more involved in solving problems caused by increased human population, increased pollution, increased need for energy and increased attempts to destroy ecosystem for human use.

Dialects Of Modern Javanese

There are three main groups of Javanese dialects, based on sub-regions: Western Javanese, Central Javanese, and Eastern Javanese. The differences are primarily in pronunciation, but with vocabulary differences also. Javanese dialects are all mutually intelligible.

Central Javanese (Jawa Tengahan) is founded on the speech of Surakarta and to a lesser extent of Yogyakarta. It is considered the most "refined" of the regional variants, and serves as a model for the standard language. Those two cities are the seats of four Javanese principalities (heirs to the Mataram Sultanate) that once dominated the whole of Java and beyond. This variant is used throughout Central Java province, and there are many lower-level dialects such as Muria and Semarangan, as well as Surakarta and Yogyakarta themselves. There are also dialects such as Pekalongan or Dialek Pantura, and Kebumen (a variation of Banyumasan). The variations in Central Java are said to be so plentiful that almost every administrative region (or kabupaten) has its own local slang; but those minor dialects are not seen as distinct by most Javanese speakers.

Central Javanese is also used in the western part of East Java province. For example, Javanese spoken in the Madiun region (along with Javanese spoken in Blitar, Ponorogo, Pacitan, and Tulungagung) bears a strong influence of Surakarta Javanese.

1. Pekalongan dialect is spoken in Pekalongan and Pekalongan regency, and also in Pemalang.


2. Kedu dialect is spoken in the former Kedu residency, and in Temanggung, Kebumen, Magelang, and Wonosobo.


3. Bagelen dialect is spoken in Purworejo.


4. Semarang dialect is spoken in Semarang, Semarang regency, and also Salatiga, Demak and Kendal.


5. Eastern North-Coast dialect, or dialek Muria, is spoken in Jepara, Rembang, Kudus, Pati, and also in Tuban and Bojonegoro.


6. Blora dialect is spoken in Blora, the eastern part of Grobogan, and the western part of Ngawi.


7. Surakarta dialect is spoken commonly in Surakarta, Karanganyar, Wonogiri, Sukoharjo, and Boyolali.


8. Yogyakarta dialect is spoken in Yogyakarta and Klaten.


9. Madiun dialect is spoken in East Java province, including Madiun, Ngawi, Pacitan, Ponorogo, and Magetan.

Western Javanese (Jawa Kulonan), spoken in the western part of the Central Java province and throughout the West Java province (particularly on the north coast), includes dialects that are distinct for their Sundanese influences. It retains many archaic words.

1. North Banten dialect (Jawa Serang) is spoken in Serang, Cilegon, and the western part of Tangerang regency.


2. Cirebon dialect (Cirebonan or Basa Cerbon) is spoken in Cirebon and Losari. Indramayu dialect (or Dermayon), which is spoken in Indramayu, Karawang, and Subang, is sometimes included in Cirebonan.


3. Tegal dialect, known as Tegalan or Dialek Pantura (North-Coast dialect), is spoken in Tegal, Brebes, and the western part of Pemalang regency.


4. Banyumas dialect, known as Banyumasan, is spoken in Banyumas, Cilacap, Purbalingga, Banjarnegara, and Bumiayu.

These Western Javanese dialects are sometimes called as basa ngapak-apak by other Javanese.

Eastern Javanese (Jawa Wetanan) speakers range from the eastern banks of Brantas River in Kertosono, and from Nganjuk to Banyuwangi, comprising the majority of the East Java province excluding Madura island. However, the variant has been influenced by Madurese, and is sometimes referred to as Surabayan speech.

The most outlying Eastern Javanese dialect is spoken in Balambangan (or Banyuwangi). It is generally known as Basa Osing. Osing, a local negation word, is a cognate of tusing in Balinese. (This area of Java has the island of Bali immediately to the east, and was formerly under the control of Balinese kings and warlords.)

1. Surabaya dialect (Suroboyoan) is commonly spoken in Surabaya, Gresik, and Sidoarjo. Many Madurese people also use this dialect as their second language.


2. Malang dialect is spoken in Malang and Malang regency, and also in Mojokerto.
   Jombang dialect.


3. Tengger dialect, used by Tenggerese people.


4. Banyuwangi dialect (Basa Osing).

In addition to these three main variants, there is Surinamese Javanese, which is mainly based on Central Javanese, especially from the Kedu residency.

Phonetic Differences

Phoneme /i/ at closed ultima is pronounced as [ɪ] in Central Javanese (Surakarta–Yogyakarta dialect), as [i] in Western Javanese (Banyumasan dialect), and as [ɛ] in Eastern Javanese.

Phoneme /u/ at closed ultima is pronounced as [ʊ] in Central Javanese, as [u] in Western Javanese, and as [ɔ] in Eastern Javanese.

Phoneme /a/ at closed ultima in Central Javanese is pronounced as [a] and at open ultima as [ɔ]. Regardless of position, it tends toward [a] in Western Javanese and as [ɔ] in Eastern Javanese.

Western Javanese tend to palatalize every last vowel of a word as euphony, eg.: Ana apa? [anak kapaʔ] "What happened?", Aja kaya kuwe! [adʒak kaiak kuɛʔ] "Don't be like that!".

Javanesse

Javanese language (Javanese: basa Jawa, Indonesian: bahasa Jawa) is the language of the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java, in Indonesia. There are also pockets of Javanese speakers in the northern coast of western Java. It is the native language of more than 75,500,000 people (more than 40% of total population in Indonesia).

Javanese is part of the Austronesian family, and is therefore related to Indonesian and other Malay varieties. Most speakers of Javanese also speak Indonesian: for official and commercial purposes, and to communicate with non-Javanese Indonesians.

There are speakers of Javanese in Malaysia (concentrated in the states of Selangor and Johor) and Singapore. Some people of Javanese descent in Suriname (the Dutch colony of Suriname until 1954) speak a creole descendant of the language.

Introduction

The word Jawa (Java) written in Javanese script.

Javanese is a Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian language. It is otherwise not particularly close to other languages and is difficult to classify, though not too dissimilar from neighboring languages such as Malay, Sundanese, Madurese, and Balinese.

The language is spoken in Central and East Java, as well as on the north coast of West Java. In Madura, Bali, Lombok, and the Sunda region of West Java, it is also used as a literary language. It was the court language in Palembang in South Sumatra, until the palace was sacked by the Dutch in the late 18th century.

Javanese can be regarded as one of the classical languages of the world, with a vast literature spanning more than twelve centuries. The language developed in four stages:

• Old Javanese, from the 9th century


• Middle Javanese, from the 13th century


• New Javanese, from the 16th century


• Modern Javanese, from the 20th century (but this stage is not universally distinguished)

Javanese is written with the Javanese script, Arabo-Javanese script, Arabic script (modified for Javanese), and Latin script.

Although not currently an official language anywhere, Javanese is the Austronesian language with the largest number of native speakers. It is spoken or understood by approximately 80 million people. At least 45% of the total population of Indonesia are of Javanese descent or live in an area where Javanese is the dominant language. Five out of the six Indonesian presidents since 1945 have been of Javanese descent. It is therefore not surprising that Javanese has a deep impact on the development of Indonesian, the national language of Indonesia, which is itself a modern development from Malay.

There are three main dialects in the modern language: Central Javanese, Eastern Javanese, and Western Javanese. There is a dialect continuum from Banten in the extreme west of Java to Banyuwangi in the eastern corner of the island. All Javanese dialects are more or less mutually intelligible.

About Indonesian Idol

Indonesian Idol is a reality television singing competition created by Simon Fuller and produced by FremantleMedia Asia, which began airing on RCTI on March 2004 and became one of the most popular shows in the history of Indonesian elevision. Part of the Idol franchise, it was as a spin-off from the UK show Pop Idol.

The concept of the series is to find new solo recording artists where the winner is determined by the viewers. Through telephone and SMS text voting, viewers have chosen as winners Joy Tobing, Mike Mohede, Ihsan Tarore, Rini Wulandari, Aris Runtuwene, Igo Pentury and Regina Ivanova (listed in chronological order).

The series employs a panel of judges who critique the contestants' performances. The original four judges were AMI Awards-winning Jazz musician Indra Lesmana, AMI Awards-winning pop singer Titi DJ, Radio announcer and presenter Meuthia Kasim and video director Dimas Djayadiningrat. The judging panel currently consists of musician and solo singer Anang Hermansyah, musician and artist manager Ahmad Dhani and 1 person judge is still a secret identity. Other judges who have been a part of the show are television presenter Indy Barends, MTV video jockey and comedian Jamie Aditya, musician and conductor Erwin Gutawa, Indonesian Superstar Agnes Monica and hits-maker Ahmad Dhani.

The show was originally hosted by radio DJ Amelia Natasha and TV host Irgi Ahmad Fahrezy. In 2006, Daniel Mananta replaced Irgi as the main host and Dewi Sandra replaced Ata in 2008. Since 2010, Daniel Mananta was the only host for this program.

Indonesian Idol won the 2005 and 2006 Panasonic Awards for the Best Music Variety Show. It also defeated its rival, Akademi Fantasi Indosiar, known locally as AFI, but in 2004 AFI won the Best Reality Show award in Panasonic Awards 2004. Singapore Tourism Board also rewarded Indonesian Idol Season 1 by inviting the Top 11 contestants of to the American Idol World Tour there. Joy, the winner of season 1, was the opening singer of the concert.

But after the fifth season, the event was discontinued because of declining ratings, and resumed its sixth season in 2010. The seventh season was held in 2012 and rapidly became the most successful season in the history of Indonesian Idol. Originally planned to be replace by UK hit The X Factor in 2013, the future of Indonesian Idol is now under discussion.


Judges and hosts

The show had originally four judges, namely Indra Lesmana, Titi DJ, Meuthia Kasim and Dimas Djayadiningrat aka Dimas Djay. In season three, Radio announcer and presenter Indy Barends replaced Meuthia Kasim because of Meuthia's health. Indy stayed only for one season and left the show before season four. In season four, MTV video jockey and comedian Jamie Aditya replaced Indy Barends and musician and solo singer Anang Hermansyah replaced Dimas Djay who left the panel after three seasons. In season five, Jamie left the panel and only three judges, Indra, Titi and Anang were the judges. In 2010, Indra Lesmana and Titi DJ left the panel and replaced by musician and conductor Erwin Gutawa and Indonesian Superstar Agnes Monica. And in 2012, the last season of Indonesian Idol, Anang Hermansyah and Agnes Monica return as judges, while musician and hits-maker Ahmad Dhani replaced Erwin Gutawa in the panel.

Guest judges may occasionally be introduced. In season one, guest judge was Krisdayanti. In season two, Yovie Widianto replaced Dimas Djay and Ahmad Dhani replaced Meuthia Kasim in any cities audition. In season four, in several times Titi DJ replaced by Tika Panggabean in Spectacular show. In season six, alternately Rossa, Melly Goeslaw, Ahmad Dhani, Charly Van Houten, Pasha and Armand Maulana were the guest judges in spectacular show. Guest judges were used in the audition rounds for seasons five, six and seven, such as Rio Febrian, Melly Goeslaw, Nugie, and Yovie Widianto in season five, Rossa in season six Melly Goeslaw, Ahmad Dhani, Hedy Yunus, Andien and Nina Tamam in season seven. The two season first was presented by Amelia Natasha aka Ata and Irgi Ahmad Fahrezy. Irgi quit after the second season and replaced by Daniel Mananta. In season five, Ata left the show and replaced by pop singer Dewi Sandra. Since season six, only Daniel Mananta was the host of this show.

Everywhere Is Possible [Jumper]

Jumper is a 2008 American science fiction film, loosely based on the 1992 science fiction novel of the same name by Steven Gould. The film is directed by Doug Liman and stars Hayden Christensen, Jamie Bell, Samuel L. Jackson, Rachel Bilson, Max Thieriot, AnnaSophia Robb, and Diane Lane. The film follows a young man capable of teleporting as he is chased by a secret society intent on killing him.

The script went through a rewrite prior to filming and the roles for the main characters were changed during production. Jumper was filmed in 20 cities in 14 countries between 2006 and 2007. The film was released on February 14, 2008 and a soundtrack was released on February 19. The film held the first position in its opening weekend with $27.3 million, but despite this success, reviews from critics were generally negative.
Contents

Plot

In Ann Arbor, Michigan, teenager David Rice (Max Thieriot) gives his crush, Millie (Annasophia Robb), a snow globe containing the Eiffel Tower, knowing her dreams of traveling someday. A bully, Mark, throws the globe onto the ice near a river. While trying to retrieve it, David falls through the ice and is pulled away by the current. He suddenly finds himself in the local library with drenched clothes. He discovers he can "Jump", or teleport, disappearing from one place and instantly appearing in another. Unhappy with his life, he runs away and is believed dead by his alcoholic father.

Eight years later, an adult David (Hayden Christensen) has settled into a life of adventure. He spends his days jumping around various continents, doing various sports and living lavishly using money stolen from banks via his jumping abilities. We also see him observing a natural disaster on the TV news, but not even consider using his power to save the people. After a day of hedonistic jumping, including seducing and sleeping with a woman in London, he is ambushed in his home by Roland Cox (Samuel L. Jackson). Cox tries to trap him with a system of high-voltage cables, which prevent him from being able to jump. David escapes and returns home to Ann Arbor, seeking the now adult Millie (Rachel Bilson). He is attacked by Mark and purposely teleports him into a bank vault. He leaves him there and returns to Millie, inviting her to travel with him (by conventional means) to Rome. Roland – who we see heads an organisation dedicated to killing these "abominations" because "only God should have the power to be everywhere" – later discovers Mark in police custody and so learns David's identity.

David and Millie arrive in Rome, David attempting to keep his true nature as a thief and his power a secret from her. After talking, they have sexual intercourse. David and Millie visit the Colosseum, only to find it closed. David uses his ability to unlock a door from the inside, telling a skeptical Millie the door was already unlocked. While opening another door, he discovers another Jumper, Griffin (Jamie Bell). He warns David that "Paladins" are coming – an extremist group which has been tracking down and killing Jumpers from "the beginning". Several Paladins show up and attack them. Griffin kills one and teleports, taking the body with him. David tries to leave with Millie, but is detained by Italian police and questioned about the death. While waiting for a magistrate to arrive, David's mother Mary (Diane Lane), who had left David when he was five, appears and throws him the keys to his handcuffs. She tells him he has very little time to leave. David tries to follow her, but she says if he wants the girl to live he must leave now. David tells Millie the police let him go and they leave together. Millie, now very suspicious, demands the truth. David declines and puts her on a plane home.

David jumps to Griffin's lair, asking where to find Roland. Griffin explains that Paladins are religious fanatics who believe Jumpers are an affront to God and have been hunting them for centuries. He also says that Paladins will kill Jumpers by targeting their loved ones. He has been trying to kill Roland for years, as the Paladins killed his parents when he was a child and have tried to kill him several times. David teleports to his father, finds him bleeding and teleports him to a hospital. He returns to Griffin and convinces him to go with him to the airport to greet Millie. Upon arriving, they realize her flight landed an hour earlier. Griffin returns to his lair to get weapons while David searches for Millie. He breaks into her apartment, angering Millie, who tells him to leave. Through the living room window David sees Roland arriving and shows her what he can do, and saves her, by teleporting her back to Griffin's lair. The Paladins follow using a machine that keeps the "jump scar" (wormhole) open and fight with David and Griffin. Roland is chased back through the portal, but snatches Millie back to her apartment with a cable.

Griffin decides to take a bomb to Millie's apartment and kill everyone. David refuses, wanting to save Millie. They fight through several locations, and David traps Griffin with power lines in Chechnya, while there is an ongoing battle between Russian troops and Islamic militants. Griffin warns that if he faces the Paladins alone he will be outnumbered. He goes anyway and is quickly trapped by Roland's electric cables. David cannot escape as he is physically tied to the apartment by the cables. Using his teleporting powers David separates the apartment from the rest of the building and teleports that section away, along with Roland, Millie and himself, back to the river into which he fell through the ice as a child. Once free of the cables (while still underwater) David teleports to the library with Millie, as well as an unwelcome Roland. David then grabs Roland and takes him to a cave in the Grand Canyon, abandoning him there, and telling him that he could have had him killed instead.

David visits his mother and is stunned when a girl, his half-sister, Sophie (Kristen Stewart), answers the door. Mary tells David she has known he was a Jumper since he was five, when Jumpers make their first Jump. She is a Paladin, and had to either kill David or leave. She again allows him to leave, allowing him a "head start". He meets with Millie outside and they jump to an unknown location.

Just For Smoker

Smoking is a practice in which a substance, most commonly tobacco or cannabis, is burned and the smoke is tasted or inhaled. This is primarily practised as a route of administration for recreational drug use, as combustion releases the active substances in drugs such as nicotine and makes them available for absorption through the lungs. It can also be done as a part of rituals, to induce trances and spiritual enlightenment.

The most common method of smoking today is through cigarettes, primarily industrially manufactured but also hand-rolled from loose tobacco and rolling paper. Other smoking implements include pipes, cigars, bidis, hookahs, vaporizers and bongs. It has been suggested that smoking-related disease kills one half of all long term smokers but these diseases may also be contracted by non-smokers. A 2007 report states that about 4.9 million people worldwide each year die as a result of smoking.

Smoking is one of the most common forms of recreational drug use. Tobacco smoking is today by far the most popular form of smoking and is practiced by over one billion people in the majority of all human societies. Less common drugs for smoking include cannabis and opium. Some of the substances are classified as hard narcotics, like heroin, but the use of these is very limited as they are often not commercially available.

The history of smoking can be dated to as early as 5000 BC, and has been recorded in many different cultures across the world. Early smoking evolved in association with religious ceremonies; as offerings to deities, in cleansing rituals or to allow shamans and priests to alter their minds for purposes of divination or spiritual enlightenment. After the European exploration and conquest of the Americans, the practice of smoking tobacco quickly spread to the rest of the world. In regions like India and Subsaharan Africa, it merged with existing practices of smoking (mostly of cannabis). In Europe, it introduced a new type of social activity and a form of drug intake which previously had been unknown.

Perception surrounding smoking has varied over time and from one place to another; holy and sinful, sophisticated and vulgar, a panacea and deadly health hazard. Only relatively recently, and primarily in industrialized Western countries, has smoking come to be viewed in a decidedly negative light. Today medical studies have proven that smoking tobacco is among the leading causes of many diseases such as lung cancer, heart attacks, COPD, erectile dysfunction and can also lead to birth defects. The inherent health hazards of smoking have caused many countries to institute high taxes on tobacco products and anti-smoking campaigns are launched every year in an attempt to curb tobacco smoking.


Early Smoker

The history of smoking dates back to as early as 5000 BC in shamanistic rituals. Many ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonians, Indians and Chinese, burnt incense as a part of religious rituals, as did the Israelites and the later Catholic and Orthodox Christian churches. Smoking in the Americas probably had its origins in the incense-burning ceremonies of shamans but was later adopted for pleasure, or as a social tool. The smoking of tobacco, as well as various hallucinogenic drugs was used to achieve trances and to come into contact with the spirit world.

Substances such as Cannabis, clarified butter (ghee), fish offal, dried snake skins and various pastes molded around incense sticks dates back at least 2000 years. Fumigation (dhupa) and fire offerings (homa) are prescribed in the Ayurveda for medical purposes, and have been practiced for at least 3,000 years while smoking, dhumrapana (literally "drinking smoke"), has been practiced for at least 2,000 years. Before modern times these substances have been consumed through pipes, with stems of various lengths or chillums.

Cannabis smoking was common in the Middle East before the arrival of tobacco, and was early on a common social activity that centered around the type of water pipe called a hookah. Smoking, especially after the introduction of tobacco, was an essential component of Muslim society and culture and became integrated with important traditions such as weddings, funerals and was expressed in architecture, clothing, literature and poetry.

Cannabis smoking was introduced to Sub-Saharan Africa through Ethiopia and the east African coast by either Indian or Arab traders in the 13th century or earlier and spread on the same trade routes as those that carried coffee, which originated in the highlands of Ethiopia.[6] It was smoked in calabash water pipes with terra cotta smoking bowls, apparently an Ethiopian invention which was later conveyed to eastern, southern and central Africa.

At the time of the arrivals of Reports from the first European explorers and conquistadors to reach the Americas tell of rituals where native priests smoked themselves into such high degrees of intoxication that it is unlikely that the rituals were limited to just tobacco.

Popularization of Smoker

For more about the impact and development of tobacco, see History of tobacco.
For more about the commercial development of tobacco, see History of commercial tobacco in the United States.

In 1612, six years after the settlement of Jamestown, John Rolfe was credited as the first settler to successfully raise tobacco as a cash crop. The demand quickly grew as tobacco, referred to as "golden weed", revived the Virginia join stock company from its failed gold expeditions. In order to meet demands from the old world, tobacco was grown in succession, quickly depleting the land. This became a motivator to settle west into the unknown continent, and likewise an expansion of tobacco production. Indentured servitude became the primary labor force up until Bacon's Rebellion, from which the focus turned to slavery. This trend abated following the American revolution as slavery became regarded as unprofitable. However the practice was revived in 1794 with the invention of the cotton gin.

A Frenchman named Jean Nicot (from whose name the word nicotine is derived) introduced tobacco to France in 1560. From France tobacco spread to England. The first report of a smoking Englishman is of a sailor in Bristol in 1556, seen "emitting smoke from his nostrils". Like tea, coffee and opium, tobacco was just one of many intoxicants that was originally used as a form of medicine. Tobacco was introduced around 1600 by French merchants in what today is modern-day Gambia and Senegal. At the same time caravans from Morocco brought tobacco to the areas around Timbuktu and the Portuguese brought the commodity (and the plant) to southern Africa, establishing the popularity of tobacco throughout all of Africa by the 1650s.

Soon after its introduction to the Old World, tobacco came under frequent criticism from state and religious leaders. Murad IV, sultan of the Ottoman Empire 1623-40 was among the first to attempt a smoking ban by claiming it was a threat to public moral and health. The Chinese emperor Chongzhen issued an edict banning smoking two years before his death and the overthrow of the Ming dynasty. Later, the Manchu of the Qing dynasty, who were originally a tribe of nomadic horse warriors, would proclaim smoking "a more heinous crime than that even of neglecting archery". In Edo period Japan, some of the earliest tobacco plantations were scorned by the shogunate as being a threat to the military economy by letting valuable farmland go to waste for the use of a recreational drug instead of being used to plant food crops.[14]
Bonsack's cigarette rolling machine, as shown on U.S. patent 238,640.

Religious leaders have often been prominent among those who considered smoking immoral or outright blasphemous. In 1634 the Patriarch of Moscow forbade the sale of tobacco and sentenced men and women who flouted the ban to have their nostrils slit and their backs whipped until skin came off their backs. The Western church leader Urban VII likewise condemned smoking in a papal bull of 1590. Despite many concerted efforts, restrictions and bans were almost universally ignored. When James I of England, a staunch anti-smoker and the author of a A Counterblaste to Tobacco, tried to curb the new trend by enforcing a whopping 4000% tax increase on tobacco in 1604, it proved a failure, as London had some 7,000 tobacco sellers by the early 17th century. Later, scrupulous rulers would realise the futility of smoking bans and instead turned tobacco trade and cultivation into lucrative government monopolies.

By the mid-17th century every major civilization had been introduced to tobacco smoking and in many cases had already assimilated it into the native culture, despite the attempts of many rulers to stamp the practice out with harsh penalties or fines. Tobacco, both product and plant, followed the major trade routes to major ports and markets, and then on into the hinterlands. The English language term smoking was coined in the late 18th century, before then the practice was referred to as drinking smoke.

Tobacco and cannabis were used in Sub-Saharan Africa, much like elsewhere in the world, to confirm social relations, but also created entirely new ones. In what is today Congo, a society called Bena Diemba ("People of Cannabis") was organized in the late 19th century in Lubuko ("The Land of Friendship"). The Bena Diemba were collectivist pacifists that rejected alcohol and herbal medicines in favor of cannabis.

The growth remained stable until the American Civil War in 1860s, from which the primary labor force transition from slavery to share cropping. This compounded with a change in demand, lead to the industrialization of tobacco production with the cigarette. James Bonsack, a craftsman, in 1881 produce a machine to speed the production in cigarettes.

Iwan Fals

Iwan Fals (born Virgiawan Listanto; September 3, 1961 in Jakarta) is an Indonesian singer–songwriter. In 2002, Time magazine named him as a Great Asian Hero.

Early life

Iwan was born Virgiawan Listanto in Jakarta, on September 3, 1961 to Harsoyo, a soldier,[1] and Lies Suudijah. He studied at SMP 5 Bandung and SMAK BPK Bandung. He continued his studies at Sekolah Tinggi Publisistik and then Jakarta Arts Institute. At the age of thirteen, he performed as a street performer at wedding ceremonies and other social events..

Personal life

On 1 January 1982, his first son, Galang Rambu Anarki was born. One of his best-known songs, Galang Rambu Anarki, was written for his birth and released on 1982's Opini (Opinion) album. Galang was a guitarist who became a folk musician in his own right, and he died on 25 April 1997 of a suspected morphine overdose. 'Galang Rambu Anarki' translates to "support the sign of anarchy" in English.

Three years later, his first daughter Anissa Cikal Rambu Basae was born.[4] His third child is Rayya Rambu Robbani. He and Rosanna, his wife live in Cibubur, West Java.

Galan Rambu Anarki had started to follow in his father's footsteps, playing in a band from a young age, but died in 1997, aged 16, either of asthma, or from a drug overdose.

Career

Aged 18, Iwan Fals, Toto Gunarto, Helmi and Bambang Bule formed a group named Amburadul. The group released the album 'Perjalanan' in 1979, which was not successful, but was re-released with the added track '3 Bulan' as '3 Bulan' (1980) in 1980. The group disbanded and played no further role in Iwan Fals' career.

As part of his early career, Iwan Fals also recorded some comedy albums, after winning a comedy country singing contest. He sang of comic situations and themes, and his first release was on 'Canda Dalam Nada' (the A-side featured five songs by Iwan: Generasi Frustrasi, Dongeng Tidur, Imitasi, Kisah Sepeda Motorku (aka. Kopral), and Joni Kesiangan while the B-side consisted of songs by Tom Slepe and Pusaka Jaya). The songs Dongeng Tidur, Joni Kesiangan and Kisah Sepeda Motorku were released, with one new song, Ambulance Zig Zag, on the Iwan Fals mini-album Canda Dalam Nada, while Generasi Frustrasi and Imitasi were also included on the 'Yang Muda Yang Bercanda II' multiartist comedy compilation.

During this time, Iwan supported himself by busking.

1981 saw Iwan Fals' breakthrough, when he signed to Musica Studio to record his first solo album, Sarjana Muda. This album shows Iwan Fals' signature country music style, with the protest song "Guru Oemar Bakrie", which talks of how a teacher is poorly paid but still responsible for educating future well-paid and successful people. 'Guru Oemar Bakrie' became very well-known and popular in Indonesia, and helped established Iwan's name. The album also contains several ballads. It benefited from considerable investment by Musica Studio, who used high-quality musicians and producer for the album.

1982's Opini, also on Musica Studio, cemented Iwan's reputation as a protest singer, but also as a balladeer. 'Galang Rambu Anarki', for his newborn son, combined both elements, commenting on both the happy event of the birth of his first child, but also commenting on rising prices, saying that perhaps his child would be malnourished if they could not afford to buy milk.

1983 saw the release of Sumbang, while 1984's album releases were Barang Antik and Sugali.

In April 1984, Iwan was arrested and questioned for two weeks after performing the songs 'Demokrasi Nasi' and Mbak Tini, both songs never recorded on album, in Pekanbaru. The song Mbak Tini was about a prostitute with a road-side coffee shop, married to 'Soeharyo' (Suharto). The events were retold on the song '14-4-84' on 1986's Ethiopia.

Iwan Fals continued to release albums throughout the 1980s, while in 1989 he formed the group Swami, which released two albums Swami I in 1989, and Swami II in 1991. A similar grouping was Kantata Takwa, which contained several Swami personnel. The musical style was "rebana rock", a blend of Jimi Hendrix and Rick Wakeman, to a Betawi rebana. The album Kantata Takwa' was released in 1990, featuring songs such as "Bento" and "Bongkar" ("Rip It Down"), two of several songs which they sang during a demonstration by college students.

Up to the release Orang Gila in 1994, Iwan had released approximately two new albums per year for 15 years. Since 1994, he has greatly reduced his release schedule, releasing two singles only in 1995, and one in 1996, while in 1998 Kantata Samsara, the second and final album by Kantata Takwa, was released.

To make up for the lack of new content, a number of Iwan Fals compilations were released in the 1990s and 2000s, including Best Of The Best, Akustik (3 volumes), and Salam Reformasi ("Greetings Reformation"), which sold more than 50,000 copies.

In 2002, Iwan Fals released his first new solo album since 1994, Suara Hati. In 2003 the album 'In Collaboration With' was released consisting of performances with other Indonesia artists. Manusia Setengah Dewa, in 2004, was a solo album.

In 2005, he released Iwan Fals In Love, essentially a compilation of existing Iwan Fals romantic reocrdings, but with the new song "Ijinkan Aku Menyayangimu" ("Let Me Love You") as the main single, and five re-recordings of old songs. Two songs, in collaboration with Indra Lesmana, Haruskah Pergi, and Selancar, were released as digital download in 2006.

In 2007, 50:50 was released by Musica Studios. The album's themes were romance and social criticism. One single of the album, "Pulanglah" ("Go Home"), tells about the death of Munir.[12] Six singles were written by himself and other six singles were written by his fellow musicians. Two songs were released in 2009 as Untukmu Terkasih.

In 2010, he released Keseimbangan, and in 2011 he released new album titled "tergila-gila" with 4 new songs inside. He has a large fans club which called OI (Orang Indonesia).

Lyrical Themes

Iwan Fals has been compared with Bob Dylan, who was one of his key influences, both on his early style, which made heavy use of the harmonica, and on his lyrics, which have frequently been in the protest song genre.

For instance, "Kamu Sudah Gila" ("You've Gone Crazy") and "Apa Kamu Sudah Jadi Tuhan?" ("Have You Ever Been as God?") criticized the New Order regime.

Other songs are more observational, but still could be seen as political. For instance, his song Galang Rambu Anarki, written for his newborn son, talks of being too poor to raise his son, while "Kembang Pete" ("Petai Flower") tells the story of the underestimated poor.[1] "Aku Bosan" ("I'm Bored") is about a child protesting to his parents because they left him alone at home. While "Hura-Hura Huru-Hara" ("Fake Riot") compares moneylender to blood-sucking vampires.

The 1988 song (and album) '1910', which could be interpreted as referring to the year 1910, was actually a reference to the date 19 October, the date, in 1987, of the Bintaro train crash, a disaster the song documents in observational style. "Celoteh Camar Tolol dan Cemar", on 1983's Sumbang, documented the sinking of the Tampomas II in Masalembu.

Aside from his observational protest songs, Iwan Fals is known for his love songs, which include "Yang Terlupakan" ("The Forgotten"), "Mata Indah Bola Pingpong" ("Beautiful Eyes, Pingpong Ball"), "Antara Kau, Aku, dan Bekas Pacarmu" ("Among You, Me, and Your ex-Boyfriend"), and "Pesawat Tempurku".

Although a songwriter, Iwan Fals' status as one of Indonesia's leading rock/pop performers has led to his recording material from numerous other song writers. Some of his most notable hits written by others include Barang Antik ("Antique"), "Kemesraan" ("Intimacy"), "Kumenanti Seorang Kekasih" ("I'm Waiting for a Lover"), "Aku Bukan Pilihan" ("I'm Not an Option") and "Ijinkan Aku Menyayangimu".

Bad English

Bad English was an American/British hard rock supergroup formed in 1988, reuniting keyboardist Jonathan Cain with singer John Waite and bassist Ricky Phillips, his former bandmates in The Babys.

The members decided on a name for the band while playing pool. John Waite missed a shot and Jonathan Cain made a comment on how bad his "english" was (referring to the spin a player puts on the cue ball) and the band decided to use the phrase.[1] The name is also thought to be a reference to The Babys, since the name was misspelled and an example of bad English.

Jonathan Cain and guitarist Neal Schon, who had enjoyed enormous success in Journey, continued on to form Bad English with Waite after Journey disbanded.[2] The first album, eponymously titled, was a big seller with three hit singles, including the number one hit "When I See You Smile" written by Diane Warren, the top 10 hit "Price of Love," and "Possession." Another track from the debut album, the AOR song "Best of What I Got", was featured in the soundtrack to 1989's Tango and Cash.[3]

The band's second album, 1991's "Backlash" came and went without any fanfare. The only single, "Straight To Your Heart," just missed the Top 40, peaking at No. 42. Ricky Phillips writes on his website that the group had parted company before the second album had been mixed. Both Phillips and guitarist Neal Schon expressed frustration with the "pop" side of the band's songs and wanted a harder edge. In the end, it proved to be the band's undoing as everyone left to pursue other projects.

In later interviews Waite revealed that although he loved playing to stadium-sized audiences, he was uncomfortable with the corporate rock image that he felt the band had presented and has been a solo artist ever since.

Bad English drummer Deen Castronovo later went on to join a reformed Journey with singer Steve Augeri, Neal Schon, Jonathan Cain, and Ross Valory. He also played on Ozzy Osbourne's album Ozzmosis in 1995.

Just For SEO

Hi, Guys! Do you know about SEO ? Or do you ever mind about SEO tactic and trick? SEO [Search Engine Optimizers] is the process of improving the visibility of a website or a web page in a search engine 's natural or un-paid search results .

In general, the earlier and more frequently a site appears in the search results list, the more visitors it will receive from the search engine's users. SEO may target different kinds of search, including image search, local search, video search, academic search, news search and industry-specific vertical search engines.

As an Internet marketing strategy, SEO considers how search engines work, what people search for, the actual search terms or keywords typed into search engines and which search engines are preferred by their targeted audience. Optimizing a website may involve editing its content and HTML and associated coding to both increase its relevance to specific keywords and to remove barriers to the indexing activities of search engines.

Promoting a site to increase the number of backlinks, or inbound links, is another SEO tactic.

See you next time!

Just For Sharing

Sharing the joint use of a resource or space. In its narrow sense, it refers to joint or alternating use of an inherently finite good, such as a common pasture or a shared residence. It is also the process of dividing and distributing. Apart from obvious instances, which we can observe in human activity, we can also find many examples of this happening in nature.

When an organism takes in nutrition or oxygen for instance, its internal organs are designed to divide and
distribute the energy taken in, to supply parts of its body that need it. Flowers divide and distribute their
seeds. In a broader sense, it can also include free granting of use rights to a good that can be treated as
a nonrival good , such as information.

Still more loosely, “sharing” can actually mean giving something as an outright gift.

Sharing is a basic component of human interaction, and is responsible for strengthening social ties and ensuring a person’s well-being.