THE ALCHEMY

Alchemy is an ancient pseudoscience concerned with the transmutation of base metals into gold and with the discovery of both a single cure for all diseases and a way to prolong life indefinitely. Alchemy emerged as a pseudoscience in China an in Egypt during the early centuries of this era. In China it was associated with Taoist philosophy and purported to transmute base metals into gold by use of a “medicine”. The gold so produced was thought to have the ability to cure diseases and to prolong life. The mystical element was always strong in alchemy and became dominant with time so that in China degenerated into a complex of superstitions.

In Egypt, the methods of transmutation of metals were kept secret by temple priests. Those recipes became widely known at academy in Alexandria. Alchemy had its basis in the skills of Egyptian artisan, Eastern mysticism and Aristotelian theory of composition of matter. Aristotle taught that all matter was composed of four elements: water, earth, fire and air. According to this theory, different materials found in nature had different ratios of these four elements. Therefore, by proper treatment a base metal could be changed into gold. These ideas were further supported by astrological speculation from Mesopotamia.

HOW ANIMALS ESCAPE FROM DANGER ?

As a living thing an animal tries to live on and multiply itself. Besides it also has an instinct to defend itself from dangers. Weak animals have their own ways to free themselves from their enemies. To chase its enemy a house mouse sprays a very bad smell. A cuttlefish sends out black liquid when it is attacked. A small lizard cuts its tail to free itself from an attack. Its tail will grow again in a short time. A crab, ten leg shellfish, has a pair of pincers to protect itself. Another animal that has a pair of pincers is a lobster. Lobsters an crabs are called crustaceans. Their pincers are use to grip things.

A hedge-hog rolls itself up into a ball to defend itself. The spines that covered its skin are also dangerous weapons. To protect themselves all poisonous snakes spray their poison. Large snakes will wrap their enemies with their bodies. Sometimes a snake bites its enemy to protect itself from a danger. A snail hides itself in its shell when a danger comes. An eel's skin is very slippery because it is covered with mucus. The mucus is used to defend from seizure. A chameleon changes colour according to the place where it exists. In a tree it changes color to green, so that it can't be seen easily. A tree-frog uses its urine to expel the enemies.

THE HOSPITAL

A hospital is a place that provides care for the sick and injured, It offers a wide variety of medical services for its patients. The hospital also serves as a centre for health related research within the community.

The discovery of anesthetics made modern surgery possible. The realization of the necessity for antiseptic halted the spread of disease and infection within hospital walls.

By the end of 19^th century the hospital had assumed its modern structure and was beginning to the central axis around which all other health-care systems were organized.

Hospitals are classified by the kinds of services they offer. General hospitals are equipped to treat a variety of common diseases and injuries. Special hospitals are established to treat specific maladies or specific groups of patients. Hospital are also classified according to the entity controlling them: a church, a corporation or a medical school.

Advances in each aspect of health care have led to the creation of professional specialities. The specialities have become more important to the efficient care for the sick.

Nutrition, for example was recognized as a contributing factor in the cause and cure of illness. Hospital dietitians now plan meals based on their knowledge of the special dietary requirements for patient suffering every type of illness.

As alcoholism has come to be perceived as a sickness, special units have been added to hospital services. The units treat both the physical and psychological aspects of the disease. The treatment of drug addiction is also a hospital function.

Improved medical techniques have enabled physicians to save the lives of an increasing number of accident victims by special surgical procedures.

THE SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is a term that encompasses a broad range of energy forms. The sun's energy profoundly affects the world's wind patterns, causes ocean water to evaporate as part of the hydraulic cycle and is essential for plant growth. The winds may be used to turn windmills, the hydraulic cycle makes hydroelectric power possible. Vegetation, which grows in the presence of sunlight, may be burned directly for instance, as wood in a stove or fireplace. Solar energy also makes it possible to harness ocean thermal energy, which uses the temperature difference between sun-warmed surface water and cold water from the ocean depths to produce power.

Although all these indirect means of using energy from the sun are considered solar technologies, the solar energy most commonly refers to direct use of the sun's energy: by means of photovoltaic sollar cells, which convert sunlight into electricity. It includes the use of various devices to convert solar radiation to heat the may be used for heating and cooling buildings, providing hot water for homes, business, industry and generating electricity by thermal means.

Besides the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity by means of photovoltaic cells, sunlight may be used to generate steam, which can then be used to power a turbine for producing electricity. One solar-thermal design, called a power tower, consists of a field of movable mirrors that surround a tower, at the top of which is a boiler. The mirrors, called heliostats, track the sun so as to constantly focus its light on the boiler. At the bottom of the tower is a building that houses a turbine generator. Some scientists heve suggested building huge photovoltaic arrays in earth orbit for producing large amounts of power. Such arrays, called solar space power satellites, would beam collected energy to earth by way of microwaves.

THE UNITED NATIONS

The United Nations is a general international organization. It was established at the end of World War II to promote international peace and security. It officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, when 51 original members ratified its charter.

One of the main purposes of the organization is to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war. Developing friendly relation among states was another goal of the organization. The other important goal is to promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

The United Nations is equipped with six major organs. They are the Security Council, General Assembly, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice and the Secretariat.

The Security Council is responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security. It has 15 members. Five of them are permanent members. The other ten members are elected by the General Assembly for 2-year terms.

The General Assembly is composed of all members stated. It is the main deliberate organ of the United Nations. It has the right to discuss and make recommendations on all matters within the scope of the charter. The International Court of Justice receives cases from states and international organization. The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day work of the organization. The work of the secretary-general and staff is varied. Providing mediation in resolving international dispute is one of their duties. Administering peace keeping operations is also the secretary-general's duty.

In January 1982, Javier Perez De Cuellar of Peru began a five-year term, ending in December 1986.

THE HUMAN DIGESTION

Digestion is the process in which nutrients such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates are taken in by an organism and broken down to a form that may be readily absorbed from the gut for circulation to and used by various cells. The host is provided with nutrient required for metabolism. Nutrient supply the molecules from which energy, as calories, may be derived for cellular synthesis, cell and organ growth, and tissue replacement. In addition, nutrient provide the components that are needed in these processes but which the host is unable to synthesize, such as vitamins, minerals and certain essential amino acids.

Food enters the digestive tract by way of the mouth, where it undergoes physical change through chewing. Enzymes, such as ptyalin, that initiate sugar digestion are introduced in salivary secretions, which also provide lubrication to facilitate chewing and swallowing.

The food bolus (soft mass) passes through the esophagus and is retained in the stomach. There food is liquefied by a mixture of hydrochloric acid and pepsin, which is secreted by the stomach wall.

A common duct from the pancreas and the gall bladder into the duodenum serves as a conduit to introduce bicarbonate (to neutralize hydrochloric acid), pancreatic enzymes (for degradation of proteins and carbohydrates) and bile salts (for fat absorption).

Peristalsis moves the chyme into the next portion of small intestine, where the bulk of digested carbohydrate, protein, water, water-soluble vitamins and minerals are absorbed. Remaining nutrients are propelled to the last third of the small intestine, the ileum.

Here fat, fat-soluble vitamins and bile salts are absorbed.

FAMILY PLANNING AND BIRTH CONTROL

A father can establish a prosperous family easier if the family is not too large. The government always suggests that each family should not have more than two children. A small family simplifies the education process because each child gets a special attention from their parents.

The discussion about the forming of a small family will face the technical situation. The technical situation is not less important than the conceptional idea. The conceptional idea will only be an imagination without the technical support in the daily life.

Technically the government has given a very great attention to family planning and birth control. Several contraceptions are introduced. A safari of the family planning has been done simultaneously in the whole country.

The most effective method to control and plan the birth is by applying IUD in a woman's womb.

The doctor will surely suggest a certain device or method which is more suitable for each wife.

Most people agree to the government policy that every family should to have two children incessantly and then stop. But the other prefer having two children with three or five years distant in between, as long as the wife is still under thirty.

Kartini

Raden Ajeng Kartini was born in Mayong, Central Java on April 21, 1879 from a noble family. Her father was the regent of Jepara whose name was Raden Mas Adipati Ario Samingun Sosroningrat. He was an educated man and sent all his sons and daughter to a Dutch elementary School (Europeesche Lagere School) in Jepara. In this town she had a lot of friends, Indonesia and Dutch girls. She was also beginning to know and understand western culture.

At school Kartini began to think of what many girl of her age missed.They could not go to school, and had to stay at home until they married. Kartini realized that women in indonesia were not free, and she wanted to improve this situasion.

Kartini symbolizes the advance of women in Indonesia. According to her opinion education would add women's dignity. She tried hard to get liberty from the ancient custom. When she was still a girl, not many girls went to school. The schoolgirls were limited to elementary school.

Going to a higher school contradicted the tradition. The heroine was longing for stopping the humiliated custom. She wished to continue her study after she finished the elementary school. She persuaded her father who was a nobleman. She told him openly about her race. Men had ruled women for centuries. Women had to obey what men said. Sometimes they had to do what they really didn't want to do. Women never had any important right. They only had to bear babies, nothing else. On the contrary man laid on his desire even it hurt woman's heart. It was a pity, woman was not brave enough to refuse.

Why could it happen? Because her race wasn't clever. They never had any education. It was her idea to give knowledge and skill to women. She proposed what was in her mind to her father. Her father denied what she wanted. It was a contradiction with the habit.

He asked her daughter not to leave home until someone asked her to be his wife. As an obedient girl, she accepted the decision. She had to do what her father wanted. She becane Adipati Joyodiningrat's wife and moved to Rembang following her husband.

PLASTIC ARTICLES

A plastic material is one which can be moulded into the shape we want. The first plastic materials were ones that are to be found in nature, such as wax, resin and clay. We know that clay can be fashioned into cups and saucers.

Today are chemists have found out to make new materials which can be pressed into whatever shapes are wanted and then made hard so that they can be used by us.

There are several kinds of stuffs, but they all fall into one or other of two groups. Those in one group are put while cold into a metal mould of the right shape. They are pressed into shape and then made hard by heat. Once they harden they keep their shape. The other group is made soft by heat. Then it is squirted as a thick liquid into a metal mould of the right shape. The plastic become firm in their new shape as they cool.

Let us take a simple article as a plastic tumbler, which is shaped like a glass. For this they use the method known as compression mould. A metal mould of the shape of the outside of the tumbler is made and into this some plastic material is put. It is in the form of a powder. Then another metal mould, having the shape of the inside of the tumbler, comes down and pressed into this powder. The powder spreads out and fills the space between the inner and outer mould. The mould get very hot and the powder joins together to form a firm tumbler.

When the top mould is lifted up, the tumbler can be taken out. It will always keeps the same shape.

Another method, called injection moulding is used to make plastic toys. A metal mould has in it a hollow space in the shape of a toy. The plastic material is heated and it turns to a thick liquid. This liquid is squirted into the hollow space shaped like a toy. It fills up this space, and when the liquid cools and becomes hard it is now in the form of a toy.

PEOPLE AND SUBSISTENCE

The vast population increase of the 21^th century have been accompanied by advances in agriculture. Domestic animals supply about 8 million metric tons of wheat. Rather smaller quantity of rice provides the main food of human population. Lesser elements are an annual 82 million metric tons of sugar. About 6 million metric tons of fish are caught in the ocean month.

Population tend to grow rapidly to the highest level at which the available technology can provide sustenance, and then remain constant. As technology becomes more sophisticated, population increase. Thomas Malthus, the British economist and pioneer in the modern study of population, failed to predict technological change and consequently underestimated future growth in both populations and their incomes.

Much contemporary discussion of population is framed in terms of demographic model in which deaths decline from a level of about 30 per 1000each year to about 10 per 1000. After a longer or a shorter lag the decline in deaths is followed by a decline births from about 45 per 1000 or higher to about 20 per 1000 or lower. No one knows whether the fall in the death rate directly causes the fall in the birthrate that follows it. The time lag separating the fall in births from the fall in deaths is of crucial importance. With a delay of 45 years it can multiply fourfold. With a delay of 75 years it can multiply ninefold. What is certain is that if no fall in birthrate occurs, the death rate will have to rise in those countries which are technologically backward. Only a certain number of people will be able to support themselves within a given territory through subsistence agriculture.

VOLCANO

A volcano is a vent in the earth from which molten rock and gas erupt. The molten rock that erupts from the volcano forms a hill or mountain around the vent. The lava may flow out as a viscous liquid, or it may be exploded from the vent as solid or liquid particles.

The most fluid magmas are erupted quietly. They flow from the vent to form gently sloping shield volcanoes. The lava flows from the shield volcanoes are usually only 1 to 10 meter thick. They may extend for great distances away from the vent.

Magmas with high gas contents and high viscousities are usually more explosive. These gas-rich magmas are blown high into the air during an eruption. The magma falls as volcanic bombs, which accumulate around the vent. They form steep-sided cinder cones.

Most of the tallest volcanoes are stratovolcanoes. These form from a cycle of quiet eruptions of fluid lava followed by explosive eruptions of viscous lava.

A volcano may exhibit different styles of eruptions at different times. Eruptions may change from one type to another as the eruption progresses. The least violent type of eruption is termed Hawaiian. It is characterized by extensive fluid lava flows from central vents. Occasionally it is accompanied by lava fountains. Strombolian eruptions are characterized by moderately fluid lava flows. Vulcanian eruptions are marked by viscous magmas.

Volcanic activity has yielded a variety of economic resources. Volcanoes supply both lightweight and heavy aggregate, as well as pumice for abrasives and elements such as sulfur, copper and many other. Recently volcanic areas have become important sources of geothermal energy.

WAGE RUDOLF SUPRATMAN

A magazine asked all Indonesian musicians to prepare the National Anthem. Supratman thought that he had to compose an anthem. In 1924, he composed Indonesia Raya.

He was born at Jatinegara, Jakarta, on March 19, 1903. After he finished his elementary school in Jakarta, he continued his study in Ujung Pandang and graduated there.

He taught at elementary school for some years, before he worked at a business firm. His heart pressed him to move to Bandung. He become a journalist in Bandung and moved to Jakarta. He was still a journalist when he went to Jakarta. He often wrote about the national movements. The condition at the time touched him. The ill treatment to the people urged him to write a book. The title of this book was Perawan Desa. Perawan Desa criticized the colonialist so the Dutch forbade its circulation. The Indonesia Raya that was only sung by the boy-scout, finally sung widely in the Youth Congress in Jakarta. The Congress was held on October 28, 1928.

With a violin in his hand, Supratman played the song beautifully in front of the Congress participators. They were all very satisfied and clapped hand happily. Since that time on the Indonesia Raya was always sung at every meeting, even though the Dutch prevented. Besides producing the Youth Oath, the congress declared the Indonesia Raya created by Supratman. After the proclamation of the independence, Indonesia Raya was confirmed as the National Anthem. Supratman died in Surabaya on August 17, 1938 when he was only 35 years old.

PETROLEUM

Petroleum – the oil and gas in the earth crust – is the immense importance to humans. Petroleum occurs widely in the sedimentary rocks of the earth's crust. It may as gas, liquid, semisolid or solid, although mixtures of gas and liquids are most common.

Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydro carbon compounds with minor amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur as impurities. Forms of petroleum include crude oil. Natural gas consisting of the compound methane, butane and propane. Asphalt is obtained as a residue from certain petroleum. Commercially, crude oil is the most important form of petroleum and natural gas is second.

Petroleum is enormously important from an economic, technological and social standpoint. Fuels that derived from petroleum supply more than half of the world's total supply of energy. Gasoline, kerosene and diesel oil provide fuel for automobiles, tractors, trucks, aircraft and ships. Fuel oil and natural gas are used to heat homes and commercial buildings.

Petroleum products are used in the manufacture of synthetic fibers for clothing and in plastics, paints, fertilizers, insecticides, soaps and synthetic rubber. The uses of petroleum as a source of raw material in manufacturing have progressively increased in importance.

FROM ALCHEMY TO SCIENCE

In the time of Aristotle, greeks spread into Egypt and Mesopotamia. And so, in the centuries that followed, the knowledge of those regions met and mixed with Greeks theories.

For instance, Egyptian metalworkers knew how to make imitation gold by mixing copper with other metals. The mixture wasn't gold, of course, but it had the color of gold. However, a Greeks theory said that gold and copper were really made of the same matter. They differed only in the “form”. So it followed that one could make gold from copper or even from lead.

Naturally, metalworkers began to try to make real gold. This was probably the beginning of a study called chemia. Exactly where this word comes from no one knows, but it is the root of our word “chemistry”.

For many centuries the students of chemia tried to make gold out of other metals. But since this was impossible by the methods they used, they always failed.

As time passed, the Arabs became great conquerors. They won control of Mesopotamia and Egypt and much more. And they took up the study of chemia, which they called al chemia (al is Arabic for “the”). This expression has come down to us as “alchemy”.

The most important Arabian alchemist was Jabir ibn Hayyan. He lived about A.D. 750 and is also known by the Latin form of his name, Geber. He seems to have made a number of discoveries about ways to prepare chemical. And it it was he who started the search for certain dry powder that came to be called the philosopher's stone. Alchemists believed that it would turn other metals into gold. And they searched for it during hundreds of years.

Arabian alchemists did discover some important new chemical substance. Among these were ammonium chloride and certain strong alkalies. Most of their time, however, was spent searching for the philosopher stone. And after the year 1000, Arabian alchemy came to an end.

However, by the 1100's Arabian books were reaching Europe. Books an alchemy (and many more) were translated into Latin. Europeans the began to search for the philosopher's stone.

Fortunatelly by the 1500's a new spirit was on the sea. There was a swiss doctor who called himself Paracelsus. He was an alchemist but not an ordinary one. He didn't think it was at all important to find methods for making gold. He thought alchemists should search for medicine to cure sickness. He was not a great scientist and some of his idea were entirely wrong. But he wanted to put an end to ancient belief's and start over. There he was right. He was also right in waiting to test ideas by experiments.

Beginning in the 1580's an Italian scientist named Galileo showed that it was very important to make accurate measurements. More could be learned in this way than in any other. He work in physics and astronomy helped to establish modern science.

Lavoisier, a French chemist, explained that a candle didn't really disappear if it burned. The carbon and hydrogen in it combined with the oxygen of the air. They formed carbon dioxide gas and water vapour. If the candle burned in a closed vessel, the weight of the candle and vessel did not change.

Chemists tried to arrange the elements in the order of their atomic weights. The most successful arranger was a Russian chemist, Dmitri I. Mendeleev. In 1869 he arranged the elements in rows and columns. He published the first periodic table, which become the basis of theoritical chemistry. The periodic table provides an easy way to show the division of the elements into two acid and base.

As chemistry had been developing so had the science of physics. Physics deals with various forms of energy, such as heat, light, electricity and magnetism. From about 1850 on, chemists began to apply the findings physics to chemistry. In this way physical chemistry was developed.

Driving a car can be a pleasure

Driving a car can be a pleasure, but sometimes it is dangerous for other. The government forms many traffic regulations to prevent accidents. One of the regulations is a necessity to have a driving license according to the vehicle one takes. Drivers have to recognize and obey all of the traffic signs on the road.

In our country one has to drive at the left side. In some other countries, one has to drive at the right side.

Bad drivers often commit traffic delict that threaten others. Besides they are threats against the traffic regularity. In the rash hours, traffic delays very often occur. Good drivers can play an important role and help the traffic policeman in overcoming the delays. Not to pass the heavy roads is a way to lessen the traffic delays.

A driver must be sure that his vehicle is safe. He has to convince himself that he won't have any engine-trouble on the road. What should one do before he takes his car? There are many things to do. He must be sure the water in the radiator is full. The engine won't last long if it lacks of water. The engine will overheat quickly. Changing oil regularly after a certain distance is a good way to prevent a car disturbance. Look closely if the brakes work well. Repair or adjust them if you think they work badly. Good brakes will protect our lives and others.

Don't forget to take the spare tire. Look over all the lamps. Driving without good lamps in the night is very dangerous. When your car does not start, look at the battery. Charge it if necessary. Your car must be equipped with safety triangulars, a jack, a medicine box and other important equipments.

If the car is okay, driving is a fun.

WILDLIFE REFUGE IN THE UNITED STATES

The reason for establishing a wildlife refuge is to provide protection for animals that have become reduced in number. The other motive is to improve the habitat so that animals will breed and grow in number.

Traditionally, a wildlife refuge has been a marked area of land or water on which hunting, trapping, trespassing and fishing are forbidden or restricted. Most wildlife refuges are established under governmental programs. But some are established by private individuals and organizations. The first federal refuges was established in Florida by executive order of President Theodore Roosevelt. This refuge, intended to protect brown pelicans. A large number of federal refuges have managers trained in wildlife ecology or forestry.

Migratory bird refuges account for three-fourths of all refuges established. Concern for the waterfowl population has resulted in breeding and wintering refuges. The national wildlife refuge in North Dakota is a good example of preservation of a waterfowl breeding habitat. The Illinois River bottom was established as a flyway refuge where waterfowl could find food and protection while migrating to traditional wintering grounds.

Refuges also exist for endangered species such as the whooping crane, which find protection at its winter home in the Arkansas Refuge of Texas. The key deer in Florida benefits from the the Key Deer Refuge there and the desert bighorn sheep finds protection in refuge of southern Nevada.

National refuges exist in Africa, protecting such game as elephants and lions and also lesser-known, rare species of animals. Such refuges also have been established in India, Indonesia and numerous other regions worldwide.

LAKE TOBA

The lake Toba which is located in North Sumatra is the largest lake in Indonesia. The beauty of the lake interests thousand of foreign and domestic tourists. Every year thousand of tourists come to Toba to enjoy its beauty. Prapat is a beautiful town by the lake. The town is not very clean, but it is not dirty either.

From this town, tourists can cross the lake to Samosir. It is an island in the middle of the gigantic lake. Crossing the lake to Samosir is an interesting experience.

If the day is clear, the green island is really beautiful. At Tuktuk, a small town in Samosir, tourists can spend the night in villas belongs to the big restaurant there. The villas only charge Rp. 500.000,- for a doubled room. People who do not have much money can rent cheaper villas. There are some which charge lower. Some people also rent their houses for tourists. Tourists only have to pay Rp. 50.000,- a night. The houses have no electricity but they are clean and comfortable.

Every day a ferry sails around Samosir. Because it is a large island, the journey takes the whole day. Tourists who do not like sailing can go around the island by land. On certain days cars carry people to go around the island. One can hire a motor-cycle, too. The rent is about Rp. 800.000,- a day. The rent is not fixed, depending on how clever one bargains. Riding a motor-cycle is very pleasant in this district. The road is good and not busy. The people are very kind and are always ready to help others. The beautiful nature and the kindness of the people are really different from the region across the island.

Ambarita is another small town in Samosir. About five kilometres from the small town, people can see the ruin of ancient small kingdoms. Samosir is a unique island. The island that is located in the middle of lake Toba also has a small lake in its centre. It also has two hot springs that interest tourists.

THE AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is the accumulation in the atmosphere of substances that, in sufficient concentrations, endanger human health or produce other measured effects on living matter and other materials.

Among the major sources of pollution are power and heat generation, the burning of solid wastes, industrial processes and especially transportation. The six major types of pollutants are carbon monoxide, hydro carbons, nitrogen oxides, particulates, sulfur dioxide and photochemical oxidants.

Smog has seriously affected more persons than any other type of air pollution. It can be loosely defined as a multisource, widespread air pollution that occurs in the air of cities.

As a coal economy has gradually been replaced by a petroleum economy, photochemical smog has become predominant in many cities. Its unpleasant properties result from the irradiation by sunlight of hydrocarbons and other pollutants in the air. Irradiation produces a long series of photochemical reactions. The product of the reactions include organic particles, ozone, aldehydes and organic acids. Sulfur dioxide, which is always present to some extent, oxidizes and hydrates to form sulfuric acid and becomes part of the particulate matter. Automobiles are polluters even in the absence of photochemical reactions. They are responsible for much of the particulate material in the air. They also emit carbon monoxide, one of the most toxic constituents of smog.

All types of smog decrease visibility and with the possible exception of ice fog are irritating to the respiratory system.

Statistical studies indicate that smog is a contributor to malignancies of many types. Photochemical smog produces eye irritation and lacrimation and causes severe damage to many types of vegetation, including important crops. Acute effects include an increased mortality rate, especially among person suffering from respiratory and coronary ailment.

ROBERT WOLTER MONGINSIDI

Robert Wolter Monginsidi was born in Manado in 1925. He was still in MULO when the Pacific War broke. During the Japanese occupation, he entered the Japanese school.

He joined the independence combatants in Ujung Pandang when the Indonesia independence was proclaimed.

When the Dutch landed at Ujung Pandang and other towns in Southern Sulawesi, the armed conflict with the young combatants happened.

The combatants finally founded irregular troops and appointed Wolter as the secretary general. Besides he also accomplished a task as a tactician in the military operations. He often covered up as a Dutch military police and entered the town to spy upon the enemy.

The colonialist suffered much loss in facing the irregular troops. He concentrated his troops at Polombangkeng.

Overcoming the combatants activities, the aggressor performed robust operations. Wolter was trapped and caught, Ten months later he escaped from the prison. The Dutch was panic and accomplished other accurate operations. In nine days the Dutch recaught him.

The colonialist tried to persuade him to work together but he refused distinctly. Finally the Dutch sentenced him to death. He rejected to ask amnesty from the colonialist.

On September 5, 1949, Wolter was shot at Pacinang. With a bible in his left hand and his right hand clenched, he shouted “Merdeka!”. He died as a young hero.

GENERATOR

A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by rotating an armature, which contains conductors, through a magnetic field. A voltage is induced in the moving conductors by an effect called electromagnetic induction. In order for voltage to be generated, relative motion must exist between the conductors and the magnetic field. An engine, motor, turbine or other source of mechanical energy is used to turn the armature shaft. Generators are built in many sizes. Most electricity used today in cars, in homes and by industry in producing things by generators.

The two main types of generators are direct-current (DC) generators and alternating-current (AC) generators. The DC generators rotates the conductors in a stationary magnetic field. The AC generators (alternator) rotates a magnetic field that is cut by the stationary conductors. Current induced in the conductors of all generators is an alternating-current. The current taken from the generator for the electrical load circuit, however, may be either AC or DC, depending on how the generator is constructed.

The strength of voltage induced in the conductor depends on its speed and on the strength of the magnetic field. The magnetic field may be furnished by a permanent magnet or by current flowing through field coils to form an electromagnet.

The principal components of a DC generator are the armature, commutator, field poles, brushes and brush rigging, yoke or frame, an bells or and frames. In an alternator, the armature coils are held in place in slots in the alternator frame. The field coils are wound on poles or slots around the rotating shaft. The assembly that contains the stationary conductors is called stator. The assembly that includes the rotating poles and field coils is called rotor.

ECOLOGY

Darwin's theory of evolution was essentially ecological. He postulated that organisms which will survive to reproduce are those that are best adapted to their environment. Ecologists are concerned with how organisms adapt to their environment in order to survive. The ecological functions of an organism are said to constitute its niche. For example, an insect may be a predator, but it may not prey on organisms much larger or much smaller than itself. Also, diurnal predators normally do not capture organisms that are nocturnal or that live in habitats unsuited to the predator.

Many ecologists are proponents of a principle called competitive exclusion, which states that each niche can be occupied by only one species, because when a required resource is limited and two or more species compete for it, one of the species will be eliminated unless it can evolve to occupy a slightly different niche.

One of the major trends in ecology is the increased use of mathematical modeling, which often requires the use of computers. Mathematical formulas are used to stimulate population fluctuations, mineral cycling and energy flow. Models can be used to discover where our knowledge is inadequate, to aid in making generalizations and formulating ecological principles and to help predict the fate of ecosystems under given sets of circumstances.

The growing field of systems ecology uses theoretical analysis and experimental methods to study the disruption of ecosystems and the dynamics of their reconstruction. System ecology requires people trained in a wide variety of disciplines: mathematics, computer technology, physiology, microbiology, biochemistry, climatology and taxonomy.

Ecologists are more and more involved in solving problems caused by increased human population, increased pollution, increased need for energy and increased attempts to destroy ecosystem for human use.